Psychological classifications: различия между версиями

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=== The scale of system of psychological types ===
 
=== The scale of system of psychological types ===
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==== Cosmologies ====
 +
 +
Systems of views about the material and and mental world based on principles of harmony,  common universal laws of the nature and mind, have greatest scale and orderliness. Everything including the principle of psychological classification, has mathematical accuracy and clearness. The typology has the subordinated role, it reflects the natural belonging to cosmic laws.
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 +
'''Example:''' Psycosmology
 +
 +
 +
==== Formal typologies ====
 +
 +
Classifications that included stabil types singled out on the basis of some psychological or anatomo-physiological traits refer to formal typologies. The formal typology may have quote varies scale. Often these are typologies on the basies of behavior particulares in certain activity.
 +
 +
'''Example:''' Witkin in 1954 singled out the types of people  as field dependent and field independent.  The  field dependent do not see a simple figure in a complex geometrical background. The field independent can single out the figure from complex geometrical background.
 +
 +
==== Dynamic typologies ====
 +
 +
The dynamic typologies are connected with change and transformations of people, with doing through stages in their development (biological, psychological, social).
 +
 +
'''Example:''' From the psychoanalytical point of view, the child in her development undergoes in a number of psychosexual stages which creates a particular make up of soul and mind, being a sort of psychological type.
 +
 +
The man in the development is viewed as an autoerotic creature that receives sensual pleasure from stimulation of erogenic zones of the body by the parents or other people during the process of reazing. Freud believed that for every  such stage there is a particular erogenic zone.
 +
 +
The man goes through certain stadies in the development of self-consciousness  in the search of Self. Karl Jung considered the Self to be a central archetype, the one of order and wholeness of  personality. Jung called ability of man to self-cognition and self-development as individuation
 +
confluence of her/his conscious and unconscious. The first stage of the individuation is the aquisition of the element in the structure of the personality psychic called - person or mask hiding the real self and the unconscious, called the shadow.
 +
So the second stage of the individuation is awareness of the shadow. The third stage is meeting  still other components of psychic – called Anima and Animus. The last stage of individuation – development of the Self, that becomes the new center of soul. It brings unity and integrates a conscious and unconscious material. All the mentioned stages intersect. The man constantly and repeatedly returns to old problems. Individuation may be depicted as a spiral in which the man continues once and again deal with the same fundamental problems, each time in a more subtle form.
 +
 +
== Modeling of systems of psychological types ==
 +
 +
In modeling of psychological systems the systematization and classification play a very important role.
 +
With the development of statistics in the description of weight of the trait (or type) in society  character of the trait (type) distribution is very important. It is also important, if the  distinctions  of trait have a quantitative or qualitative character for the adequate interpretation of practically every  research in the field of differential psychology understanding of certain fundamental statistical concepts is required.
 +
"There are at least three various theories of the psychological types worked out by psychologists. Some authors represent types as separate classes that exclued each other.  Some others psychologists accept the theory of types as more or less detailed trait theory, defining the types as poles of one and same continuum between which people may be ranked by the law of normal distribution. The adepts of the third view believe that the types differ from the traits by having multimodal distributions in which the people are grouped with in definit points, representing pure types". Stagner, 1948.
 +
 +
=== Distribution of the traits ===
 +
 +
The more distribution is fundamental and doesn't depend on cultural factors. The majority of measuring instruments (tests) are constructed so that the trait could be normalised with the normal distribution term, if distinctions have quantitative character. For instants, the traits which enter the base of personality named the Big five have normal  distribution.
 +
 +
'''Example:''' the Exstra-introversion. The majority of people have ambivert characteristics on this scale.
 +
 +
=== Strict sets ===
 +
 +
If characteristics have not quantitative, but qualitative distinctions they are usually described as strict sets.
 +
 +
'''Example:''' Righthanders, lefthanders. The deaf and hearing. Types by Jung in socionics. 
 +
 +
=== Nonstrict sets ===
 +
 +
It is very seldom that a certain quality is stably absent absolutely in psychic. Therefore, in most cases, it is useful to use mild classifications which reflect real character of distribution more precisely.
 +
 +
'''Example:''' Typology by E.Krechmer or W.Sheldon.
 +
 +
=== Complex models ===
 +
 +
More complex and systematization models take into account the fact that may meet both quantitative, and qualitative distinctions of traits. The distributions of these traits as clear connections may form types which in term have enough strict and steady distribution in society.
 +
 +
'''Example:''' Psycosmology model in a context of general, typological and individual.
 +
 +
== System classifications ==
 +
 +
The system classifications proceeded from the postulate that whole is not a sum of the parts, but is a system of higher organization. The basis of classification often was searched for in laws of Universe  functioning. The properties of classification: strictness (everyone belongs to one and only one class and remains in it for the whole life), quantity of classes is determined by laws of the Universe, the organization of psychic is a part of the more general system of functioning of the Universe. Examples: Astrological (Egypt, Babylon, Greece, the Classical antiquity), astro-musical system of types (India).
 +
 +
«The foundation of development of practices, known nowadays as“ the western astrology ”, was the Mesopotamic astrology whereas the Chinese tradition became a core of systems so-called " Eastern astrology ”. As to astrological systems of Mesoamercan indians and druids, they haven't survived  till present time in the living tradition and are now reconstructed only some with some degree of autencity. Original astrological systems arose, probably, in other regions of the world as well, but they were quite regional (astrology of inks or original Javano-Balyiskian astrology, based on a “vuku” calendar». Denis Kutalyov. Astrology as historical and cultural phenomenon.
 +
 +
An interesting development of this idea can be found in Johann Kepler's works which really continued the traditions of astro-musical systems, having joined physical and mental laws in the theory of resonance.
 +
 +
 +
[[Файл:Кеплер.jpg |400px|thumb|right|Johann Kepler and his Cosmology]]
 +
 +
«In his exposition astrology became similar to the physical theory of resonance.
 +
The stars themselves do not influence the destiny of people, but the soul of man at the moment of a birth imprinted the angles between the stars and the following life reacted to them in specific ways“. Ju.A.Danilov Harmony and an astrology in Kepler's works.
 +
 +
A somewhat different approach to problems of astrological knowledge can be observed in Karl Jung's works. Astrology, as Jung believed, – “is the top of all psychological knowledge in antiquity”, the gist of which is in imprinting the symbolical configurations in the form of collective unconscious.
 +
“Astrology as collective unconscious to which the psychology addresses, consists of symbolical configurations:“ planets ”are Gods, the symbols of power unconscious” [Semira, Vetash, 1994, p. 13].
 +
 +
Domination of one of the four cognitive functions (thinking, emotion, sensation or intuition) builds up the ground the basis for the classification K. Jung on the basis of his great clinical experience. Upgreating of this typology was done by Aushra Augustinovichute (socionics) and I. Myers-Briggs with her mother K. Briggs.
 +
 +
== Specific classifications ==
 +
 +
The classification more often touched upon the characteristics connected with sphere of social interaction. They were build as a set of bipolar traits in which the dominant of certain trait made  accent in character of man. The characteristics of specific classifications are: the absence of a clear borders between classes, the man can pass from one class in another under the influence of the external and internal reasons, the number of classes depends on position of the author of classification.
 +
 +
'''Examples:''' Socially-characterological (Theophrastus), sociopolitical (Plato).
 +
 +
The Characters by Theophrastus deserves a separate mention. The work contains thirty brief, vigorous and trenchant outlines of moral types, which form a most valuable picture of the life of his time, and in fact of human nature in general.
 +
 +
According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant)
 +
One of the first typology of man, based on his values is Plato's typology. Plato singled out following types:
 +
 +
1) aristocratic characterized by dominant of the higher side of soul, aspiration to true search;
 +
 +
2) timocratic  characterized by strong development of ambition and inclanation to struggle;
 +
 +
3) oligarchic characterized by greedeness, many grubberness, restraint and thrift;
 +
 +
4) democratic characterized by moral instability, and aspiration to constant change of sensual pleasures;
 +
 +
5) tyrannic characterized by dominant of lowest animal attraction.
 +
 +
The specific classifications are often build by practical workers on the basis of concrete activity. Within any activity one can find many very different classifications.
 +
 +
 +
== Mixed classifications ==
 +
 +
The characteristics of the classifications: combination of strictness and flexibility. There are laws of Universe, which determine strict classifications and there are earthly laws which act on another level, not destroying the strict classification, and creating variations within one class, contributing the system flexibility. The man as a part entered more general systems - the Universe, the Society. However the man himself was an independent system with his own inner world, with  his  contradictions, unique way of life and expirience, a disposition and levels of development of inner selves. The philosophers looked upon the man from a far distance, doctors had to see the particulars his physical and psychical organization.
 +
 +
The typology of Hippocrates found in every reader, become a combination of the theoretical ideas and practical methods. Remaining on the positions of cosmologists concerning the nature of human soul, he raised the  questions about the structure and functioning of different psychical and physical organizations of the social man and developed the typology of temperaments.
 +
 +
Contemporary  systemic classifications are represented by works of Karl Jung, Hans Eysenck,  Ludmila Sobchik, Leonid Dorfman, Nataliya Nagibina and others. The authors of contemporary  systematic conceptions try to generalize as much as possible results of empirical researches of individual characteristic of man within the frameworks of one typological model. Such model, as a rule, is the center of the construction uniting the general, typological and individual psychological characteristics of man.
 +
As examples of such systematic classification may serve the Theory of leading tendencies by Ludmila Sobchik, Psycosmology by Nataliya Nagibina, the Concept of the meta-individual world by Leonid Dorfman.
 +
 +
[[Файл:Теория-ведущих-тенденций.jpg|400px|thumb|right|The theory of leading tendencies L.N. Sobchik (scheme)]]
 +
 +
The theory of leading tendencies layed in the basis of methodology of psychodiagnostical research, allows to understand the complex construct of personality in all its completeness. According to this theory, the integral image of the personality includes emotional sphere, individual style of cognition, the type of interpersonal behavior, strength and direction of motivation. The comparative analysis of the psychodiagnostical indicators received in succesive studies of different levels of self-consciousness ( objective unconscious, actual-subjective and ideal "Self"), reveals the zone of the inner conflict, level of self-understanding and ability of the individual to self-control ". L.N. Sobchik. Psychology of Individuality. 2005, p. 15

Версия 18:00, 5 сентября 2010

Classification is one of the basic devices used by psychologists for the description of distinctions between people. The problem of finding the essencial grounds for the classification psychological types, that is the grounds determing a more broad spectrum of derivative characteristics has always been crucial for the differential psychology.

Historical background

The logic of development of classification hypotheses in psychology

The entire history of human studies from the system-classification position reveals itself as arena of struggle of two opposite methodological directions, the goals of which were:

1) to "catch" the central organizing link, some kind of the motor of all design, and to distribute people by the qualitative specificity of these central links;

«The typological approach consists in the global perception of the person with the following reduction of variety of individual forms to a small number of the groups uniting around the representative type» (Meili, 1960).


2) to decompose the psychic to its components in order to understand the work of parts and to create a classification on the basis of differences in the structure and quality of parts.

«It is necessary to reduce all the personality character traits to the elementary mental elements and to the elementary forms of the basic psychological laws, revealing the nature of the discovered ties» (Polan, 1894).

At present there are several thousand of various psychological classifications that point to these or other distinctions between people or mental characteristics as such.

The classifications may have different ground scales of generalizations, degree of inner strictness.

Classification of people and classification of psychological charachteristics

The logic of psychological classifications development demanded parallel existing of two scientific approaches: one of which was named «psychology of types», and the other — «psychology of traits». In the course of time both the approaches shifted towards each other: the psychology of types - in attempts to understand the structure of psychological traits of every type, trait psychology - in attempts to achieve more high and system generalizations.

«As soon as the fact that the observable traits do not corresponds to separate essential psychic characteristics and rather are only aspects of the personality and behavior, received general recognition immediately appeared the necessity to reveal the fundamental factors behind the traits. Haimans and Virsma as well as other scientists after them tried to solve the problem. However all these researches had a fragmentary character, their results have been caused by preliminary hypotheses, and the choice of traits as a rule was determined by the personal view of the researcher» R.Maili с.228


An example of trait psychology development (stages):

  1. Singling out the types of love as psychology of traits. In the Antique time the typology of love kinds was very popular, which comprised:
  • Eros – a passionate physical and emotional love based on aesthetic enjoyment; stereotype of romantic love
  • Ludus – a love that is played as a game or sport; conquest
  • Storge – an affectionate love that slowly develops from friendship, based on similarity ( kindred to Philia )
  • Pragma – love that is driven by the head, not the heart; undemonstrative
  • Mania – highly volatile love; obsession; fueled by low self-esteem
  • Agape – selfless altruistic love; spiritual; motherly love
  1. Every person, as a rule, possesses all the possible types of love, but in different proportion. Which can be expressed by the profile characteristic with ups and downs.
  1. The Types of people with similar profile characteristics combined into classification of higher level.

The example of type psychology development (stages):

  1. Singling out groups of people that have obvious dominate of conscious cognitive operations — "Rationals" or unconscious operation out — "Irrationals".
  2. Pick out the specific cognitive abilities connected with rationality and irrationality.
  3. A network for the profile characteristic is worked out which is typical for rationals and irrationals.


In the course of development of psychological as a science and practice understanding comes that human is «microcosm» which has all traits properties and characteristics but they are distributed according to certain systemic lows, which should be yet discovered.

The scale of system of psychological types

Cosmologies

Systems of views about the material and and mental world based on principles of harmony, common universal laws of the nature and mind, have greatest scale and orderliness. Everything including the principle of psychological classification, has mathematical accuracy and clearness. The typology has the subordinated role, it reflects the natural belonging to cosmic laws.

Example: Psycosmology


Formal typologies

Classifications that included stabil types singled out on the basis of some psychological or anatomo-physiological traits refer to formal typologies. The formal typology may have quote varies scale. Often these are typologies on the basies of behavior particulares in certain activity.

Example: Witkin in 1954 singled out the types of people as field dependent and field independent. The field dependent do not see a simple figure in a complex geometrical background. The field independent can single out the figure from complex geometrical background.

Dynamic typologies

The dynamic typologies are connected with change and transformations of people, with doing through stages in their development (biological, psychological, social).

Example: From the psychoanalytical point of view, the child in her development undergoes in a number of psychosexual stages which creates a particular make up of soul and mind, being a sort of psychological type.

The man in the development is viewed as an autoerotic creature that receives sensual pleasure from stimulation of erogenic zones of the body by the parents or other people during the process of reazing. Freud believed that for every such stage there is a particular erogenic zone.

The man goes through certain stadies in the development of self-consciousness in the search of Self. Karl Jung considered the Self to be a central archetype, the one of order and wholeness of personality. Jung called ability of man to self-cognition and self-development as individuation confluence of her/his conscious and unconscious. The first stage of the individuation is the aquisition of the element in the structure of the personality psychic called - person or mask hiding the real self and the unconscious, called the shadow. So the second stage of the individuation is awareness of the shadow. The third stage is meeting still other components of psychic – called Anima and Animus. The last stage of individuation – development of the Self, that becomes the new center of soul. It brings unity and integrates a conscious and unconscious material. All the mentioned stages intersect. The man constantly and repeatedly returns to old problems. Individuation may be depicted as a spiral in which the man continues once and again deal with the same fundamental problems, each time in a more subtle form.

Modeling of systems of psychological types

In modeling of psychological systems the systematization and classification play a very important role. With the development of statistics in the description of weight of the trait (or type) in society character of the trait (type) distribution is very important. It is also important, if the distinctions of trait have a quantitative or qualitative character for the adequate interpretation of practically every research in the field of differential psychology understanding of certain fundamental statistical concepts is required. "There are at least three various theories of the psychological types worked out by psychologists. Some authors represent types as separate classes that exclued each other. Some others psychologists accept the theory of types as more or less detailed trait theory, defining the types as poles of one and same continuum between which people may be ranked by the law of normal distribution. The adepts of the third view believe that the types differ from the traits by having multimodal distributions in which the people are grouped with in definit points, representing pure types". Stagner, 1948.

Distribution of the traits

The more distribution is fundamental and doesn't depend on cultural factors. The majority of measuring instruments (tests) are constructed so that the trait could be normalised with the normal distribution term, if distinctions have quantitative character. For instants, the traits which enter the base of personality named the Big five have normal distribution.

Example: the Exstra-introversion. The majority of people have ambivert characteristics on this scale.

Strict sets

If characteristics have not quantitative, but qualitative distinctions they are usually described as strict sets.

Example: Righthanders, lefthanders. The deaf and hearing. Types by Jung in socionics.

Nonstrict sets

It is very seldom that a certain quality is stably absent absolutely in psychic. Therefore, in most cases, it is useful to use mild classifications which reflect real character of distribution more precisely.

Example: Typology by E.Krechmer or W.Sheldon.

Complex models

More complex and systematization models take into account the fact that may meet both quantitative, and qualitative distinctions of traits. The distributions of these traits as clear connections may form types which in term have enough strict and steady distribution in society.

Example: Psycosmology model in a context of general, typological and individual.

System classifications

The system classifications proceeded from the postulate that whole is not a sum of the parts, but is a system of higher organization. The basis of classification often was searched for in laws of Universe functioning. The properties of classification: strictness (everyone belongs to one and only one class and remains in it for the whole life), quantity of classes is determined by laws of the Universe, the organization of psychic is a part of the more general system of functioning of the Universe. Examples: Astrological (Egypt, Babylon, Greece, the Classical antiquity), astro-musical system of types (India).

«The foundation of development of practices, known nowadays as“ the western astrology ”, was the Mesopotamic astrology whereas the Chinese tradition became a core of systems so-called " Eastern astrology ”. As to astrological systems of Mesoamercan indians and druids, they haven't survived till present time in the living tradition and are now reconstructed only some with some degree of autencity. Original astrological systems arose, probably, in other regions of the world as well, but they were quite regional (astrology of inks or original Javano-Balyiskian astrology, based on a “vuku” calendar». Denis Kutalyov. Astrology as historical and cultural phenomenon.

An interesting development of this idea can be found in Johann Kepler's works which really continued the traditions of astro-musical systems, having joined physical and mental laws in the theory of resonance.


Johann Kepler and his Cosmology

«In his exposition astrology became similar to the physical theory of resonance. The stars themselves do not influence the destiny of people, but the soul of man at the moment of a birth imprinted the angles between the stars and the following life reacted to them in specific ways“. Ju.A.Danilov Harmony and an astrology in Kepler's works.

A somewhat different approach to problems of astrological knowledge can be observed in Karl Jung's works. Astrology, as Jung believed, – “is the top of all psychological knowledge in antiquity”, the gist of which is in imprinting the symbolical configurations in the form of collective unconscious. “Astrology as collective unconscious to which the psychology addresses, consists of symbolical configurations:“ planets ”are Gods, the symbols of power unconscious” [Semira, Vetash, 1994, p. 13].

Domination of one of the four cognitive functions (thinking, emotion, sensation or intuition) builds up the ground the basis for the classification K. Jung on the basis of his great clinical experience. Upgreating of this typology was done by Aushra Augustinovichute (socionics) and I. Myers-Briggs with her mother K. Briggs.

Specific classifications

The classification more often touched upon the characteristics connected with sphere of social interaction. They were build as a set of bipolar traits in which the dominant of certain trait made accent in character of man. The characteristics of specific classifications are: the absence of a clear borders between classes, the man can pass from one class in another under the influence of the external and internal reasons, the number of classes depends on position of the author of classification.

Examples: Socially-characterological (Theophrastus), sociopolitical (Plato).

The Characters by Theophrastus deserves a separate mention. The work contains thirty brief, vigorous and trenchant outlines of moral types, which form a most valuable picture of the life of his time, and in fact of human nature in general.

According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (rule by the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant) One of the first typology of man, based on his values is Plato's typology. Plato singled out following types:

1) aristocratic characterized by dominant of the higher side of soul, aspiration to true search;

2) timocratic characterized by strong development of ambition and inclanation to struggle;

3) oligarchic characterized by greedeness, many grubberness, restraint and thrift;

4) democratic characterized by moral instability, and aspiration to constant change of sensual pleasures;

5) tyrannic characterized by dominant of lowest animal attraction.

The specific classifications are often build by practical workers on the basis of concrete activity. Within any activity one can find many very different classifications.


Mixed classifications

The characteristics of the classifications: combination of strictness and flexibility. There are laws of Universe, which determine strict classifications and there are earthly laws which act on another level, not destroying the strict classification, and creating variations within one class, contributing the system flexibility. The man as a part entered more general systems - the Universe, the Society. However the man himself was an independent system with his own inner world, with his contradictions, unique way of life and expirience, a disposition and levels of development of inner selves. The philosophers looked upon the man from a far distance, doctors had to see the particulars his physical and psychical organization.

The typology of Hippocrates found in every reader, become a combination of the theoretical ideas and practical methods. Remaining on the positions of cosmologists concerning the nature of human soul, he raised the questions about the structure and functioning of different psychical and physical organizations of the social man and developed the typology of temperaments.

Contemporary systemic classifications are represented by works of Karl Jung, Hans Eysenck, Ludmila Sobchik, Leonid Dorfman, Nataliya Nagibina and others. The authors of contemporary systematic conceptions try to generalize as much as possible results of empirical researches of individual characteristic of man within the frameworks of one typological model. Such model, as a rule, is the center of the construction uniting the general, typological and individual psychological characteristics of man. As examples of such systematic classification may serve the Theory of leading tendencies by Ludmila Sobchik, Psycosmology by Nataliya Nagibina, the Concept of the meta-individual world by Leonid Dorfman.

The theory of leading tendencies L.N. Sobchik (scheme)

The theory of leading tendencies layed in the basis of methodology of psychodiagnostical research, allows to understand the complex construct of personality in all its completeness. According to this theory, the integral image of the personality includes emotional sphere, individual style of cognition, the type of interpersonal behavior, strength and direction of motivation. The comparative analysis of the psychodiagnostical indicators received in succesive studies of different levels of self-consciousness ( objective unconscious, actual-subjective and ideal "Self"), reveals the zone of the inner conflict, level of self-understanding and ability of the individual to self-control ". L.N. Sobchik. Psychology of Individuality. 2005, p. 15